№ 3, 2026

The criminal liability of medical personnel in cases of malpractice is a crucial issue in health law, demanding legal certainty alongside the protection of patient rights and the preservation of professional standards. This paper aims to analyse the concept of criminal liability for medical personnel whose actions performed outside professional standards result in harm to patients. The study focuses on instances of medical malpractice that give rise to criminal legal consequences. The research method used is a normative juridical method with a statutory and conceptual approach. The findings indicate that medical personnel may be held criminally liable if an element of fault whether negligence or intentional misconduct is proven to have caused patient harm or death. This element of fault must be rigorously established by considering professional standards, the causal link between the medical action and the resulting outcome, and expert medical testimony. However, not all medical errors constitute criminal offenses; the application of criminal law to medical personnel must be selective and proportionate to maintain a balance between protecting patients and safeguarding responsible medical practice.

Статья посвящена рассмотрению происхождения, значения и развития так называемого «пизанского вопроса» в политике Флоренции XV – начала XVI столетий. Автор анализирует причины цикличности конфликтов в ходе спора Флоренции за обладание Пизой. Также исследованы механизмы разрешения и последствий урегулирования «пизанского вопроса» флорентинцами. В приложении представлен оригинальный авторский перевод с итальянского на русский язык служебных инструкций и писем Франческо Веттори, написанных им в ходе исполнения миссии на Пизанском соборе, сопровождаемый примечаниями.

This article examines how technological cooperation among the BRICS states is reshaping the foundations of interstate relations at a moment when artificial intelligence, biotechnology and human enhancement research are converging into what the author terms the transhumanization of statecraft. Moving beyond accounts that treat digital sovereignty and human enhancement as separate policy domains, the study proposes a unified analytical lens built around the concept of informational hedging, understood as the simultaneous pursuit of technological autonomy and selective interdependence by states seeking to manage dependence on external powers. Drawing on the 2024 Kazan Declaration, the BRICS Artificial Intelligence Cooperation Framework and recent scholarship on digital sovereignty in Africa, the paper traces how BRICS institutions have translated declaratory commitments into instruments such as the BRICS Institute of Future Networks, the BRICS Rapid Information Security Channel and the BRICS Artificial Intelligence Research and Innovation Centre. The analysis further considers how the convergence of artificial intelligence with biotechnology and human enhancement research introduces a post-human dimension into the balance of power, one in which the object of competition is no longer only territory, capital or information but the biological and cognitive capacities of populations. The article concludes that BRICS technological cooperation should be read not as a coherent bloc strategy but as a loosely coupled architecture of hedging practices through which member and partner states, including African states, attempt to convert technological dependency into a bargaining asset within a metamorphosing, multipolar international order.